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The Propaganda

Figure 1.1 Yellow journalism

The Propagandists

During this time, major newspapers had established themselves as "leaders and shapers of public opinion” in the era of the infamous yellow journalism.³ With the help of improved technology and transportation, newspaper circulation had widened tremendously. The satirical cartoon magazine Puck that covered controversial topics hit peak circulation in the 1890s with nearly 90,000 subscribers.⁴When the USS Maine sank in February of 1898, the press competed against each other in raising hell against Spain, blaming the Spanish for the incident. Even when an investigation found evidence of any wrongdoing of Spain, the New York Journal offered a $50,000 reward for "information leading to the arrest of the alleged criminals."⁵

Jingoist politicians also cried for war, both Republicans and Democrats, seething at this Spanish treachery. To make matters worse, the method of sneakily bombing an unsuspecting ship was deemed a cowardly move that, given Spain refused to apologize for it, only furthered to insult the United States and her men. Senator Richard R. Kenney (D, Del.) nicely summed up popular sentiment, declaring that "American manhood and American chivalry give back the answer that innocent blood will be avenged, starvation and crime shall cease, Cuba shall be free [...] for such causes and for such reasons we should have war."⁶

Figure 1.2 "The Cuban melodrama"

Media Utilization Techniques

The popular American perception of the time was similar to that of a romance novel where metaphorically, Cuba was seen as a "maiden longing to be rescued".⁷This view is reflected in the romanticized illustrations of quite a few political cartoons, such as several Puck cartoons seen in Figures 1.2, 1.4, and 1.5 where Cuba plays the role of an "exotic" damsel in distress. Conversely, Uncle Sam is depicted as the gallant hero who comes to the maiden's rescue. Logically, it then follows that with the gendered victimization of Cuba came the equally gendered demonization of Spain. This sort of villainization took two forms that essentially drove home the idea that Spain was anything but honorable: portrayal as a dishonorable, cowardly man taking advantage of Cuba or an aged and weak woman who has lost control of her children, as seen in another Puck cartoon in Figure 1.7.

A third method was employed when the Maine blew up: appeal to patriotism and nationalism. Politicians and press alike depicted the Spanish as savage murderers of Americans and called for vengeance. This sort of view is illustrated in Figure 1.6. Motion pictures were also used, introduced as early as 1896. A compelling silent film was also made after McKinley declared war on Spain (Figure 1.3), showing a Spanish flag being abruptly replaced with the Stars and Stripes.

Figure 1.3 "Tearing down the Spanish flag" film

Target Audience

This emotionally-charged, sensationalized display appealed massively to white men and women. Certain publications such as Puck aimed specifically at well-off, upper and upper-middle-class men, but daily newspapers were hard to miss. Almost unanimously, they repeated the message that by fighting in the war, men would be playing the brave rescuer, answering to the outrageous challenge of Spain's destruction of the Maine, and restoring their and their nation's honor (although avenging American deaths was prioritized over the well-being of Cuba).⁸Meanwhile, women empathized strongly with the struggling female figure and were moved by the cruel murder of the sailors on the sunken battleship.

Figure 1.4 "The duty of the hour – to save her not only from Spain, but from a worse fate"

Figure 1.5 "He can't let go"

Figure 1.6 "Maine sailors murdered by Spain"

Figure 1.7 "She is getting too feeble to hold them"

Counterpropaganda

Of course, some opposed this passionate view and used equally gendered arguments, accusing jingoes of being hysterical, a term with feminine connotations.⁹ Others called for action in a "calm, dignified spirit," a sentiment echoed by Senator George Frisbie Hoar (R, Mass).¹⁰ Careful deliberation should guide foreign policy, argued anti-interventionists, not romantic standards of militant chivalry. The latter resonated with politically active women, who tended to be suffragists, and were against the idea of war with Spain. Many contended that the jingoist frenzy was proof that Congress did not represent all Americans as it was comprised exclusively of men, most of whom were pro-intervention.¹¹ In response, jingoes took to discrediting the anti-interventionist movement based on newer standards of honor that specifically included "his willingness to fight for whatever he believed in" [emphasis added].¹²

Jingoes attacked President McKinely especially hard, deeming him weak and spineless. Theodore Roosevelt famously remarked that McKinely "has no more backbone than a chocolate éclair." Publications stated that "the people" needed a "man" in the White House.¹³ After all, if a significant fraction of the anti-interventionist and anti-war coalition consisted of women who were the opposite of brave and honorable, wouldn't that make McKinley and those who supported him the opposite of brave and honorable as well? Ultimately, jingoes succeeded in narrowing response options between fighting and dishonor, successfully silencing opposing voices, including that of President McKinley.¹⁴ With support growing thin and his character under constant, fierce attack by politicians, the press, and constituents alike, McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain in March: grant Cuba independence, or else. Much to the jingoes' excitement, when Spain refused, McKinley finally declared war on April 11.¹⁵